May 2025. I have a few days off so I decide to take a train to Leiden (Leyden, Leyde) in the Dutch province of South Holland to visit the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, or the National Museum of Antiquities. Steve, my former Latin and Ancient Greek teacher in my teen years, says it’s quite good. As Leiden is just under 1.5 hours by train, let’s go.

The Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (RVO) is more than just a collection of artefacts—it’s a portal into the ancient worlds of Egypt, Rome, Greece, Etruria, and the early history of the Netherlands. For anyone with a love of archaeology or ancient history, it’s an essential stop on any cultural itinerary. And yes, it ticks my boxes. 

A national centre for archaeology

Founded in close partnership with Leiden University, the museum was originally built around the university’s own collection of antiquities. Today, it calls itself the national centre for archaeology and continues to work closely with the university’s Faculty of Archaeology. 

Its galleries span civilisations from Ancient Egypt and the Near East to Roman and Medieval Europe. One of the most striking displays is an authentic Egyptian temple, the Temple of Taffeh, meticulously dismantled in Egypt and rebuilt inside the museum’s central hall as part of a UNESCO-led effort to save Nubian heritage.

From private collection to public museum

The museum’s origins date back to 1743, when Leiden University inherited the antiquities collection of Gerard van Papenbroek. Initially displayed with little care, the collection only began to flourish in the early 19th century under the guidance of Caspar Reuvens, the world’s first professor of archaeology. 

Reuvens expanded the holdings significantly, incorporating items from other museums and negotiating acquisitions from collectors across Europe.

Among his earliest successes was the purchase of the Rottiers Collection, named after a retired Flemish colonel who had begun collecting antiquities during a stay in Athens. 

Although the origins of many items in the collection were unclear—and some later turned out to be forgeries—the acquisition introduced original Greek pottery and sculpture into the museum for the first time.

Collecting on a global scale

Between 1824 and 1826, Rottiers undertook a government-funded journey across the Mediterranean to acquire more antiquities. Although not always productive, the expedition yielded a number of significant pieces and included architectural drawings of medieval Rhodes—structures that have since been lost to history.

At the same time, another figure was helping to shape the museum’s future. Jean Emile Humbert, a Dutch agent and former military officer, sold his own collection to the state before travelling to Tunisia on an archaeological mission. 

His first expedition secured eight statues that remain highlights of the museum today. A second mission, which took place in Italy rather than Tunisia, proved even more fruitful. 

Among Humbert’s acquisitions was the Museo Corazzi—a key collection of Etruscan artefacts—and the enormous d’Anastasy Collection of Egyptian antiquities, bought for 115,000 guilders. This purchase firmly established the museum’s reputation as an international centre for Egyptian archaeology.

Challenges and transitions

In the final years of Reuvens’ life, political unrest—particularly the Belgian Revolution of 1830—led to a sharp decline in government funding. Reuvens died in 1835 after a stroke, leaving behind a museum with a rapidly growing but still vulnerable collection.

His work was taken over by his student, Conradus Leemans, who faced the difficult task of continuing the museum’s development with limited resources. Leemans appealed to private collectors and Dutch diplomats around the world, and his efforts paid off: new artefacts continued to arrive, enriching the collection.

In 1839, he secured the purchase of 100 vases from a collection once owned by Lucien Bonaparte, and began publishing catalogues to increase the museum’s scholarly reputation.

Finding a permanent home

From the start, the museum struggled with inadequate housing. Originally crammed into a university building in the botanical gardens, the collection suffered damage from damp and lack of space. 

A later move to the Museum of Natural History also proved unsatisfactory, prompting Reuvens to push for a purpose-built museum. His vision never materialised due to high costs, and even drastic proposals like moving the collection to Amsterdam were ultimately abandoned.

After Reuvens’ death, Leemans was appointed curator and took charge of improving the museum’s conditions. In 1835, the university purchased an 18th-century mansion to serve as the museum’s new home. 

Following major renovations and a challenging relocation of the artefacts, the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden officially opened its doors to the public in August 1838. At last, the growing collection had a proper space to call its own.

Collection department of Ancient Egypt

The Egyptian collection of the National Museum of Antiquities is one of the largest and most complete collections of ancient Egyptian art in the world. At the heart of the museum, the Temple of Taffeh has been reconstructed—a two-thousand-year-old, nearly complete Egyptian temple. This temple was gifted to the Netherlands by the Egyptian government as thanks for its contribution to a UNESCO-led rescue operation, which relocated dozens of monuments threatened by the rising waters of Lake Nasser during the construction of the High Aswan Dam.

Among the highlights of the Egyptian department are the double sarcophagus (a limestone inner coffin and a granite outer coffin of a vizier from the Old Kingdom), the mastaba of Hetepherachet from the Fifth Dynasty, and a group of three funerary statues of Maya and Merit from the fourteenth century BCE.

The museum also holds a large collection of papyri (such as the Papyrus of Qenna), stelae from the Middle Kingdom, ushabtis, and mummies of both humans and animals.

Department of the Ancient Near East

On the first floor is the gallery of archaeological artefacts from the Ancient Near East. These are the material remains of various civilisations that developed between 3000 BCE and the arrival of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE, including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Hittites, and Persians.

Highlights of this department include a statue of Gudea, ruler of the city-state Lagash, a Sumerian statue of a praying man from around 2200 BCE, and a painted decorative shell of unknown origin.

Department of the Classical World: Ancient Greece

The museum holds an extensive collection of vases, figurines, and everyday objects from the Greek world. Much of the display is focused on ceramics, alongside a number of marble and terracotta statues. A recent highlight is a Greek suit of armour, or panoply, dating to the fourth century BCE.

Etruria

The National Museum of Antiquities houses one of the most significant Etruscan collections in Europe, assembled in the 19th century thanks to the efforts of C.J.C. Reuvens and J.E. Humbert. 

Only a small section is on permanent display in Leiden, but it includes bronze mirrors and tools, bucchero pottery, gold jewellery (including fibulae), antefixes, terracotta and especially bronze votive offerings. 

Notable pieces include a large solid bronze boy with a goose and a 37 cm tall bronze warrior, Villanovan urns and domestic items, a canopus jar from Chiusi, a terracotta sarcophagus, and a set of alabaster and tuff ash urns from Volterra. A large portion of the Etruscan collection remains in storage.

Roman Empire

Roman artefacts are spread across two floors: the first floor displays objects from Classical Rome, while the second showcases provincial finds from the Netherlands. 

Surrounding a model of a housing block from Pompeii are a range of items from the homes of wealthy Roman citizens, including mosaics, household gods, and other domestic objects. 

A reconstructed columbarium contains ash urns, and the centrepiece of the collection is a statue of Emperor Trajan, found in the ancient city of Utica near present-day Tunis.

Department of the Netherlands

The museum presents a continuous overview of Dutch material culture, with a focus on prehistory and the Middle Ages. Among its most notable pieces are a tiny drawing considered the oldest ever found in the Netherlands, the oldest wheel discovered in Western Europe, the swords of Ommerschans and Jutphaas, and the burial finds of tribal chieftains from Oss and Wijchen.

The Roman section is subdivided into three themes: military artefacts, everyday objects—such as the well-known sarcophagus of Simpelveld—and religious items. 

The latter includes part of the large collection of altars dedicated to the goddess Nehalennia, discovered in Zeeland. The medieval section contains a Viking silver hoard from Wieringen and many items from the important trading settlement of Dorestad, including the Dorestad fibula.

Scientific research

The vast majority of the museum’s collection was acquired through purchases. However, the National Museum of Antiquities has always been committed to the field of archaeology. I

t is no coincidence that its first director was also the first professor of archaeology in the Netherlands. The museum has played a role in major excavations, including those at Tell Sabi Abyad in Syria and Saqqara in Egypt, where significant discoveries were made.

Temporary exhibition: ‘Above ground: Archaeological finds from every province’

At the time the temporary exhibition ‘Above ground: Archaeological finds from every province‘ was on. 

‘Above ground’ showcases the most remarkable and high-profile discoveries made in twenty-five years of Dutch archaeology, spanning the period from 2000 to 2025.

The exhibition brings together over five hundred objects, unearthed from approximately two hundred excavation sites across the Netherlands. These finds originate from every part of the country—from Maastricht in the south to Texel in the north—and include contributions from all twelve Dutch provinces as well as the Caribbean islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten. 

The discoveries come from a wide range of sources, including national heritage agencies, amateur detectorists, and volunteer excavators. Each object displayed was literally brought ‘above ground’ during archaeological investigations and stands out due to its cultural, historical, or material significance.

The unique value of every find

Every artefact in the exhibition carries its own distinct value. Some are extraordinary due to their craftsmanship or beauty, while others are notable because they are unique in type or were produced using a special technique. 

Occasionally, the context of the find is what makes it remarkable. Unexpected items turn up in surprising locations: a Japanese porcelain plate recovered from a cesspit, lion bones discovered at the Binnenhof in The Hague, or the remains of an orca found in the moat of a castle. 

Each example raises new questions and opens up avenues for interpretation. A shipwreck from the seventeenth century, for instance, provides valuable information about maritime trade and daily life. Other finds stir deep emotions, particularly those linked to difficult or painful periods in Dutch history. 

Personal items recovered from Camp Westerbork or archaeological contexts in the Caribbean reflect wartime trauma and colonial legacies, while a love ring conveys intimacy and tenderness.

From ancient objects to cutting-edge technology

The value of archaeological discoveries lies not only in their age or rarity but also in the stories they tell. News media often highlight the most striking examples: the oldest chair ever found, a shipwreck containing a treasure map, or a centuries-old telescope. 

Yet the exhibition also demonstrates how new technologies have transformed archaeological practice. Advances in digital modelling, imaging, and material analysis, when combined with knowledge from other scientific disciplines, have led to new and sometimes surprising interpretations of archaeological evidence. 

The exhibition also highlights how certain artefacts—such as coins, metal finds, or items recovered from shipwrecks—serve as important historical touchstones. It also sheds light on excavation methods and the value of metal detecting in contributing to our collective understanding of the past.

Research, interpretation and societal relevance

Although archaeology studies the past, its relevance lies firmly in the present. ‘Above ground’ explores how archaeological finds gain meaning within contemporary society. 

It raises questions about why a particular discovery matters, and what it can teach us about identity, memory, and cultural heritage. The exhibition delves into recent scholarly developments that have expanded our understanding of past societies. 

New research on burial practices, for example, has challenged earlier assumptions about gender and social status. DNA analysis has revealed unexpected familial or cultural links, offering fresh insights into ancient communities. 

Ultimately, ‘Above ground’ is not just about objects, but about the knowledge they generate, the histories they reveal, and the new perspectives they offer on how we see ourselves today.

A visit

In size, the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden is not super large. You can roam the three floors in a couple of hours. But I’d say two hours is a minimum. 

I started downstairs in Egypt, in the wring direction. I took an audioguide, but barely used it. I’m usually not a big fan of audioguides. There is enough written panels to inform you anyway. 

New fashioned

The temporary exhibition ‘Above ground’ was very new fashioned. It used BCE (before the common era) instead of BC (before Christ). And ‘enslaved (people)’ instead of ‘slave’

The preference for ‘enslaved’ over ‘slave’ stems from a desire to emphasize the forced nature of the condition and the person’s humanity first, the internet teklls us. 

‘Enslaved’ highlights that a person was subjected to this forced labor by another, rather than being inherently a slave. “It is more accurate to say a person was enslaved than to say they were a slave, as the former acknowledges their independent identity first and then describes the forced situation.”

“The shift also brings historical clarity, as it highlights that enslavement was a specific action against individuals rather than a social position they presumably accepted.”

Is that so? In Antiquity slavery was very much a social position. In Rome, some slaves held real high positions in the administration. 

In Dutch, this becomes ‘tot slaaf gemaakte‘ instead of ‘slaaf‘. 

There’s a lot to be said about this. But one of the questions I have is does an institution such as the RMO use this newspeak wholeheartedly or does it use this newspeak out of laziness to avoid distracting discussions with postfactum social justice advocates? 

It mostly made me roll my eyes and got me annoyed. 

But?

But it didn’t spoil my visit. If you’re into the Ancient World, go visit the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden.