The weekend before Christmas 2024, Dennis and I went to Münster in North Rhine-Westphalia for the Weihnachtsmarkt, the Christmas market. Germany is a master in Christmas markets. And a successful excursion to Bonn in 2023 left us wanting a sequel. On our way to Germany on Friday night, we learned about the 2024 Magdeburg Christmas Market car attack. That was all over the news. Would we notice anything different in Münster? 

Münster has nothing ti do with Munster cheese, which is made in the Vosges in France. But you may know Münster from the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. While it’s not as iconic as let’s say the railway carriage at Compiègne, the Peace of Westphalia is significant for Europe‘s history. 

Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia or Westfälischer Friede refers to two treaties signed in October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster. These agreements concluded the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) and restored peace to the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, ending a catastrophic period in European history that claimed approximately eight million lives. The signatories included Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, the kingdoms of France and Sweden, and their respective allies among the Holy Roman Empire’s princes.

The negotiations were protracted and intricate. Discussions occurred in two separate cities, as each faction insisted on meeting within territories under their own control. A total of 109 delegations represented the warring states, though not all were present simultaneously. 

Two treaties emerged to finalise the conflict within the Empire: the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück. These agreements ended hostilities between the Catholic Habsburgs of Austria and Spain, allied with other Catholic forces, and the Protestant powers, including Sweden and certain Holy Roman principalities, allied with Catholic France, which opposed the Habsburgs under King Louis XIV.

Modern principles of state sovereignty

Many scholars of international relations view the Peace of Westphalia as the foundation of modern principles of state sovereignty, often referred to as Westphalian sovereignty. However, some historians argue that this interpretation arose in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries amidst evolving concerns about sovereignty during those periods.

Background

Europe had endured the devastation of both the Thirty Years’ War and the overlapping Eighty Years’ War (c. 1568–1648). The Eighty Years’ War centred on the Protestant-majority Dutch Republic’s fight for independence from Catholic Spain and Portugal, with support from Protestant-majority England. 

Meanwhile, the Thirty Years’ War, the deadliest of the European wars of religion, primarily ravaged the Holy Roman Empire. This conflict unfolded in four phases, involving numerous domestic and foreign factions aligned with either the Catholic League or the Protestant Union (later the Heilbronn League). 

Although the Peace of Prague (1635) resolved many religious disputes, the rivalry between France and the Habsburgs gained prominence. With 4.5 to 8 million lives lost during the Thirty Years’ War alone, coupled with decades of relentless warfare, the urgency for peace became undeniable.

Locations

Initial peace talks between France and the Habsburg Emperor began in Cologne in 1636 but faced delays due to Cardinal Richelieu of France, who demanded the inclusion of all French allies, whether sovereign states or territories within the Holy Roman Empire. Hamburg

In December 1641, Sweden, France, and the Holy Roman Empire negotiated a preliminary peace agreement in Hamburg, building on the groundwork laid in Cologne. These talks paved the way for the broader peace process.

The principal negotiations took place in Münster and Osnabrück, two neighbouring Westphalian cities declared neutral and demilitarised for the discussions. In Münster, representatives of the Holy Roman Empire and France negotiated, alongside delegations from the Dutch Republic and Spain. 

On 30 January 1648, the Dutch Republic and Spain signed a separate treaty ending the Eighty Years’ War, distinct from the Peace of Westphalia. Münster, a strictly Catholic city since its re-Catholicisation in 1535, permitted only Roman Catholic worship, prohibiting Calvinism and Lutheranism.

Sweden preferred to conduct its negotiations with the Holy Roman Empire in Osnabrück, a city under Protestant control. Osnabrück was bi-denominational, housing both Lutheran and Catholic churches. While the city council and most burghers were Lutheran, it also contained the Catholic Chapter of the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück and a significant Catholic population. Previously occupied by troops of the Catholic League from 1628 to 1633, Osnabrück was later captured by Lutheran Swedish forces.

Delegations

The peace negotiations lacked a definitive start or conclusion, as the 109 delegations never convened in a plenary session. Delegates began arriving between 1643 and 1646, while their departures occurred between 1647 and 1649. The peak period of diplomatic activity took place from January 1646 to July 1647.

Sixteen European states sent delegations to the negotiations, along with 66 Imperial States representing the interests of 140 smaller Imperial entities, and 27 interest groups representing 38 additional parties.

The French delegation was led by Henri II of Orléans, Duke of Longueville, and included diplomats Claude d’Avaux and Abel Servien. Sweden’s delegation was headed by Count Johan Oxenstierna, with assistance from Baron Johan Adler Salvius. The Imperial delegation was led by Count Maximilian von Trautmansdorff, who was supported in Münster by Johann Ludwig von Nassau-Hadamar and Isaak Volmar, and in Osnabrück by Johann Maximilian von Lamberg and Reichshofrat Johann Krane.

Philip IV of Spain sent two delegations. The primary Spanish delegation, led by Gaspar de Bracamonte y Guzmán, included diplomats and writers Diego de Saavedra Fajardo and Bernardino de Rebolledo. Another delegation represented the Franche-Comté and the Spanish Netherlands, with Joseph de Bergaigne, who passed away before peace was concluded, and Antoine Brun.

The papal nuncio in Cologne, Fabio Chigi, and the Venetian envoy, Alvise Contarini, acted as mediators during the negotiations.

Various Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire also sent representatives. Johann Ernst Pistoris represented the Electorate of Saxony, Johann VIII zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Wittgenstein acted for Brandenburg, and Georg Christoph von Haslang represented Bavaria. 

Among Protestant envoys, Wolfgang Conrad von Thumbshirn spoke for Saxe-Altenburg, and Jakob Lampadius for Brunswick-Lüneburg. The Catholic estates were divided; Mainz, represented by Hugo Eberhard Kratz von Scharfenstein, was open to compromise, while Cologne, represented by Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg, maintained a hardline stance.

The Dutch Republic sent six delegates, including two from the province of Holland—one of whom was Adriaan Pauw—and Willem Ripperda from Overijssel. Delegates from two provinces were absent. The Swiss Confederacy was represented by Johann Rudolf Wettstein.

Separate treaties

The peace settlement comprised two separate treaties. The Treaty of Münster (Instrumentum Pacis Monasteriensis, IPM) was concluded between the Holy Roman Emperor and France, along with their respective allies. The Treaty of Osnabrück (Instrumentum Pacis Osnabrugensis, IPO) was signed between the Holy Roman Emperor and Sweden, along with their respective allies.

Significance

The Peace of Westphalia led to significant internal political and territorial changes across Europe. Authority that had been consolidated by Ferdinand III was stripped from him and returned to the rulers of the Imperial States, who regained the right to determine their own official religions. 

Catholics and Lutherans were granted equal status under the law, and Calvinism was officially recognised as a legal religion. 

The Dutch Republic, known for its religious toleration, solidified its independence and became a refuge for European Jews. The settlement, however, was met with strong opposition from the Holy See. Pope Innocent X condemned it in the papal brief ‘Zelo Domus Dei‘, calling it “null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time”.

The Peace reaffirmed the principles of the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, which allowed each ruler to choose the religion of their state (cuius regio, eius religio). 

However, subjects were no longer compelled to follow their ruler’s conversion to a different faith. Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism were officially recognised. 

The treaties set 1 January 1624 as the normative date for determining a state’s dominant religion, with all ecclesiastical property restored to its condition as of that year. Christians in principalities where their denomination was not the official religion were guaranteed the right to practise their faith privately and during designated public hours. France and Sweden were recognised as guarantors of the imperial constitution, with the right to intercede in its affairs.

The Peace also included numerous territorial adjustments. France retained the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun near Lorraine, acquired most of the cities of the Décapole in Alsace, and gained Pignerol near the Duchy of Milan. 

Sweden received an indemnity of five million thalers and secured territories such as Western Pomerania, Wismar, and the Prince-Bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, gaining representation in the Imperial Diet and regional diets. However, disputes over borders and territorial claims, such as those involving the city of Bremen, Pomerania, and Mecklenburgian port tolls, continued to cause friction.

Bavaria retained the Palatinate‘s electoral vote, granted in 1623, while Frederick V‘s son, Charles Louis, was granted a new, eighth electoral vote. 

The Palatinate itself was divided between Charles Louis, who received the Lower Palatinate, and Maximilian of Bavaria, who retained the Upper Palatinate. 

Brandenburg-Prussia gained Farther Pomerania and several bishoprics, including Magdeburg and Halberstadt. The Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück was designated to alternate between Catholic and Lutheran bishops from the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg. 

The Swiss Confederacy was formally recognised as independent from the Holy Roman Empire, having operated de facto independently since 1499. Barriers to trade and navigation established during the war were dismantled, with free navigation along the Rhine partially guaranteed.

The Peace did not end all conflicts associated with the Thirty Years’ War. Hostilities between France and Spain persisted until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, and the Dutch-Portuguese War continued until 1663. Nonetheless, the treaties addressed many of the pressing issues of the time and symbolised the conclusion of a prolonged period of religious conflict in Europe.

Modern international relations

Some scholars view the Peace of Westphalia as the foundation of modern international relations, introducing principles such as the inviolability of borders and the non-interference in sovereign states’ domestic affairs, a system referred to as Westphalian sovereignty. 

However, modern historians have challenged this interpretation, labelling it the ‘Westphalian myth‘. 

The treaties themselves contain no explicit reference to religious freedom, sovereignty, or the balance of power as principles of international law. These ideas, though linked to the constitutional framework of the Holy Roman Empire, were not novel. While the treaties may not have established the modern state system, they remain significant as a symbol of the end of Europe’s era of religious wars.

City Hall

The Historical City Hall of Münster or Rathaus Münster, situated at Prinzipalmarkt 10 in the city centre, is one of Münster’s most notable landmarks, alongside Münster Cathedral. It attracted over 120,000 visitors in 2012.

The Gothic-style building suffered extensive damage during World War II but was meticulously rebuilt between 1950 and 1958 to match its original appearance. While it is occasionally used for council meetings, the official offices of the Lord Mayor and city administration have been located at Klemensstraße 10, Heinrich-Brünig-Straße, and Syndikatsgasse since 1907.

On 15 April 2015, the European Commission awarded the Historical City Hall of Münster, together with the Town Hall of Osnabrück, the European Heritage Seal, recognising their importance as ‘Sites of the Peace of Westphalia‘.

The building’s early history is difficult to verify due to the destruction of the city’s archives during the Anabaptist regime in 1534–1535. Records from outside Münster suggest that its origins date back to the mid-12th century, when a simple timber-framed structure was built near the Michaelistor and the episcopal cathedral. 

This served as a meeting place for the city council, which also functioned as a court.

By 1200, this timber-framed building had been replaced by a larger structure, which was first documented in 1250. Known as the Hall of Peace, the Council Chamber was located in the lower part of the building. 

In the early 14th century, the site was expanded with an additional structure, likely completed around 1320 during the tenure of Mayor Johann III von Deckenbrock. This expansion created a public gathering space and reflected the growing ambitions of Münster’s citizens for self-governance.

Around 1395, a four-metre-long porch supported by five round pillars was added, extending into the market area. This feature became part of the distinctive archway characteristic of Prinzipalmarkt. The decision to place the town hall prominently near the cathedral and episcopal palace symbolised the city’s assertion of independence and its elite citizenry’s push for self-governance.

16th Century to World War II

Between the 16th century and the Second World War, the City Hall underwent several modifications. In 1576–1577, the roof above the council chamber and armoury was rebuilt, replacing the original north-south gable with an east-west orientation. The craftsmen left distinctive blue clinker bricks in the east gable as markers of their work. In 1602, a new wing called the Stoveken (Winter Council Chamber) was constructed to provide a smaller, more heat-efficient space for meetings during colder months, as the main council chamber proved difficult to heat evenly.

In 1892, a third floor and a stair tower were added, further expanding the structure. However, the building was destroyed during World War II. It was faithfully reconstructed in the 1950s, preserving its historical appearance while incorporating the earlier design changes.

Hall of Peace

The Friedenssaal in Münster’s gothic town hall owes its name to the peace treaty between Spain and the Netherlands, which was concluded here under solemn oath on 15 May 1648.

The hall originally served as a council chamber, and its fine renaissance wood panelling dates from around 1577. The gallery of portraits, with its pictures of ambassadors, was purchased by the council in 1649. The furnishings of the Peace Hall, which were evacuated during the second world war, have been faithfully restored

The G7 foreign ministers in Münster

Münster has a great historical tradition as a congress city. Part of the peace treaties of the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 were negotiated in the city for several years.

On 3 and 4 November 2022, Münster was the focus of world political events as the venue for the G7 meeting of foreign ministers. The conference is one of the most important international events in the city’s history. 

A visit

No, the Friedenssaal isn’t large. As a room, it’s not even that impressive. But its historic significance makes it an attraction. For 3 euros per person, go and have a look inside. 

Christmas market in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

1. REVIEW | Campanile Duisburg City.
2. ADVENT IN MÜNSTER | Six Christmas Markets in one city.