August 2025. We’re travelling to the Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and more specifically their respective capitals Tallinn, Riga and Vilnius. Are they interconnected by rail? Yes, but not in the most straightforward or userfriendly way possible. The Rail Baltica project should remedy this. Unsurprisingly though, this megaproject faces political and budgetary hurdles. It will most likely not be ready by 2030. But that doesn’t stop us. What to expect from the Baltics? Is it affected by  overtourism? 

As our train to Vilnius was only scheduled for 4:55 PM, we had still time for more exploration. We wanted to do the Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation, the Museum of the Barricades of 1991 and the Museum of the Occupation of Latvia. 

As the Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation only opened at 11 AM, we started with the Museum of the Barricades of 1991.

Museum of the Barricades of 1991

The Museum of the Barricades of 1991or 1991. gada barikāžu muzejs is located in the heart of Old Riga, in Krāmu Street 3. The entrance to the building is decorated with a stone portal dating back to the first half of the 18th century.

During the events of January 1991, the building was used to provide warmth, relaxation and some hot tea for participants of the barricades. Society of participants of barricades of 1991 has been headquartered here since 1997. The museum, which features historical materials related to the barricades, was established in 2001 and received government official accreditation in 2003.

The events of 1991

In January 1991, Latvia became the focus of one of the most significant confrontations in the final year of the Soviet Union. The episode, known simply as the Barricades, unfolded in Riga and several other Latvian towns between 13 and 27 January. 

It was part of a broader Baltic struggle for independence and took place against the backdrop of the Soviet Union’s slow disintegration. A year earlier, the Latvian Supreme Council had declared the restoration of independence, but Moscow refused to recognise the move. Tensions grew throughout 1990, punctuated by bombings and threats from pro-Soviet forces. By the start of 1991, armed conflict seemed increasingly likely.

Matters came to a head after a series of attacks by Soviet OMON special police units, beginning with the seizure of Latvia’s main printing house on 2 January. 

By mid-month, the OMON had taken over key communications and government buildings. The Popular Front of Latvia, the leading independence movement, responded by calling for the physical defence of strategic sites. Inspired by events in neighbouring Lithuania, where Soviet forces had killed civilians in Vilnius, Latvians began to assemble in their thousands, bringing heavy vehicles, logs, and concrete blocks to the streets of Riga. They constructed barricades to protect parliament, television and radio stations, telephone exchanges, and bridges.

The atmosphere was tense but also communal. Farmers drove tractors into the capital, forestry workers delivered timber for fortifications and bonfires, and public institutions supplied food and warm clothing. Volunteers worked in shifts, often sleeping outdoors in winter conditions. 

Around 300 foreign journalists were present, ensuring that events reached international audiences. Although officially committed to non-violence, many participants carried improvised weapons for self-defence.

Sporadic clashes broke out over the following days. On 16 January, a Ministry of Transport driver, Roberts Mūrnieks, became the first fatality after being shot by OMON forces. 

The deadliest incident occurred on the evening of 20 January, when OMON and other unidentified units attacked the Ministry of the Interior, killing four civilians and two policemen, including the cameraman Andris Slapiņš and 17-year-old Edijs Riekstiņš. S

everal journalists were injured, and there were also casualties among the attackers. The following day, the Latvian government moved to take greater control over the barricades, a decision that some interpreted as a sign of waning grassroots momentum.

The barricades themselves remained in place for months, with some dismantled only in autumn 1992. In March 1991, a national poll showed three-quarters of Latvians in favour of full independence. Further attacks by pro-Soviet forces took place in May, and during the August coup attempt in Moscow, Soviet troops again seized strategic sites. The failure of the coup accelerated Latvia’s final break from Soviet authority, which was recognised on 6 September 1991.

While the OMON in Riga carried out most of the assaults, other Soviet special units may have been involved, possibly including the Alpha Group seen in Lithuania. 

Responsibility for some incidents remained disputed, though Soviet military commanders admitted to certain earlier bombings. In the years that followed, members of the Communist Party of Latvia, Interfront, and the All-Latvian Public Rescue Committee were banned or tried for treason, and several OMON officers were convicted. Others, such as OMON commander Vladimir Antyufeyev, went on to play roles in later separatist conflicts in Moldova and eastern Ukraine.

The Barricades are remembered in Latvia as a largely non-violent act of resistance, guided by the Popular Front’s ‘Instructions for X-Hour’ – a plan that urged peaceful protest, civil disobedience, and meticulous documentation of Soviet actions. 

Since 1995, the Fund for Participants of the Barricades of 1991 has supported victims’ families and preserved testimony. 

A dedicated museum was established in 2001. The 20th of January is observed annually as a day of remembrance, and participants are honoured with the Commemorative Medal for Participants of the Barricades of 1991. 

Monuments across the country stand as reminders of the fortnight in which thousands of ordinary Latvians, facing tanks and armed troops, defended their parliament, media, and voice to the outside world.

A visit of the 1991 Museum

The museum is small and you’ll get around quite quickly. A guide to the exhibition is provided via QR code.

Museum of the Occupation of Latvia

The Museum of the Occupation of Latvia in Riga or Latvijas Okupācijas muzejs documents one of the most turbulent and traumatic periods in the country’s history. It focuses on the 51 years of successive foreign rule between 1940 and 1991, when Latvia was first occupied by the Soviet Union, then by Nazi Germany, and again by the Soviet Union until the restoration of independence.

Established in 1993, the museum collects artefacts, preserves testimony, and educates visitors about the political repression, mass deportations, and other crimes committed under these regimes. It has become a fixture in the official itineraries of visiting heads of state and dignitaries. The institution also runs an exhibition in the Corner House, the former KGB headquarters in Riga.

The idea for the museum came from Paulis Lazda, a history professor at the University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, who proposed the project to Latvia’s Ministry of Culture. This led to the creation of the Occupation Museum Foundation (now the Occupation Museum Association) in spring 1993, with an initial group of eleven members tasked with establishing and financing the museum. Its first exhibition, opened on 1 July 1993, examined the first Soviet occupation from 1940 to 1941. Over time, the scope expanded to cover the entire occupation period from 1940 to 1991.

The museum’s mission is threefold: to show what happened to Latvia, its territory, and its people under two totalitarian regimes; to remind the world of the crimes committed against the Latvian state and population; and to remember the victims, including those killed, persecuted, deported, or forced into exile. 

By 2017, the collection included nearly 60,000 registered items, alongside an audiovisual archive of more than 2,300 recorded testimonies from deportees, refugees, and others affected by the occupations. The museum’s audiovisual department has also produced a series of documentary films.

The museum occupies a Soviet-built structure completed in 1971 to mark the centenary of Vladimir Lenin’s birth. For two decades it served as the Museum of the Red Latvian Riflemen. 

Following Latvia’s independence, the building was repurposed for its current function. In November 2012, the museum temporarily relocated to Raiņa bulvāris 7, formerly the United States Embassy, while its original home underwent an extensive renovation. The project, designed by Latvian-American architect Gunnar Birkerts and titled ‘House for the Future‘, began in earnest in 2018 after years of planning and delays.

Work on the building was completed in late 2021. That summer, the memorial ‘Tactile of History‘ was unveiled beside the museum in honour of victims of the Soviet occupation. The relocation to the renovated premises began in November 2021, followed by the installation of a new permanent exhibition. 

This opened to the public on 1 June 2022, a day after it was previewed by the President of Latvia, Egils Levits, and the Minister of Culture, Nauris Puntulis.

First Soviet occupation, 1940

The Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 was the military takeover of the Republic of Latvia by the Soviet Union under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its secret protocol, which placed Latvia in the Soviet sphere of influence.

Latvia declared independence on 18 November 1918 and, after winning its War of Independence, signed a peace treaty with Soviet Russia on 11 August 1920. The treaty recognised Latvia’s sovereignty and renounced all Russian claims to its territory. Latvia was internationally recognised in 1921 and joined the League of Nations the same year. It signed a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in 1932, reaffirming earlier agreements.

In June 1939 Latvia signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, but the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 23 August 1939 placed Latvia in the Soviet sphere.

After Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland in September 1939, Moscow demanded that the Baltic States allow Soviet military bases. Latvia signed the Soviet–Latvian Mutual Assistance Treaty on 5 October 1939, permitting up to 30,000 Soviet troops to be stationed while maintaining formal sovereignty.

By spring 1940, Soviet pressure increased. On 16 June 1940, the USSR issued an ultimatum demanding a pro-Soviet government and further troops. With no hope of resistance, Latvia accepted. The Red Army entered on 17 June, occupying strategic sites across the country. President Kārlis Ulmanis was forced to appoint a Soviet-backed cabinet.

In July 1940, controlled elections were held in which only Communist-approved candidates could stand. Results, announced before polls closed, claimed overwhelming support for joining the Soviet Union. 

On 21 July, the new parliament declared Latvia a Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned to join the USSR. The request was approved in Moscow, and on 5 August 1940 Latvia was formally annexed. The United States and most Western states refused to recognise the annexation.

The first year of Soviet rule brought mass arrests, executions, and nationalisation. On 13–14 June 1941, about 15,600 people, including political leaders and their families, were deported to remote parts of the USSR. Many died due to harsh conditions.

Following Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Latvia fell under Nazi occupation. Riga was taken on 1 July 1941. Latvia became part of the Reichskommissariat Ostland, and the German authorities carried out the Holocaust and repressive measures against the population.

The Soviet Red Army returned in 1944, beginning a second occupation that lasted until 1991. Deportations, forced labour, and political repression continued, with the population falling by about 25% from 1939 levels. Many fled to Sweden or Germany, and around 150,000 resettled in the West.

Germans occupy Latvia in World War II

The German occupation of Latvia during the Second World War began on 10 July 1941, when German armed forces completed their military takeover. Initially administered by Army Group North, Latvia was incorporated on 25 July 1941 as Generalbezirk Lettland under Reichskommissariat Ostland, an administrative subdivision of Nazi Germany. 

The occupation was marked by the systematic persecution and extermination of anyone deemed racially undesirable or politically opposed to German rule, including those who had cooperated with the Soviet authorities.

From the outset of the occupation, mass killings of Jews and Roma were carried out, particularly at sites such as Rumbula. These atrocities were perpetrated by Einsatzgruppe A, the Wehrmacht, and Latvian collaborators, most notably the Arājs Kommando, which executed approximately 26,000 Jews. 

By the end of 1941, tens of thousands of Jews had been killed, with many of the remaining population confined to ghettos or later transferred to concentration camps such as Kaiserwald and Stutthof. In total, around 90,000 people were killed during the occupation, including roughly 70,000 Jews and 2,000 Roma, alongside civilians targeted for their political beliefs.

Latvian resistance was complex, encompassing anti-Soviet guerrillas, pro-Soviet partisans, nationalist units opposed to both occupiers, and Jewish efforts to survive and resist extermination. 

Resistance fighters occasionally joined German or Soviet units, although only a few operated independently. Notable acts of individual bravery included the rescue of over 50 Jews by Žanis Lipke. The Latvian Central Council sought to promote post-war democracy through clandestine publications, while Soviet-supporting partisans engaged in propaganda and sabotage operations.

Latvian forces were conscripted into both Soviet and German armies. The 130th Latvian Rifle Corps was formed under the Red Army, though it contained few Latvian soldiers and served mainly propaganda purposes. 

Nazi Germany recruited Latvians into police battalions and the Latvian Legion, with the 15th and 19th Waffen Grenadier Divisions of the SS participating in front-line combat, including near Leningrad.

The German forces began to retreat in 1944 following the lifting of the Siege of Leningrad and the advance of the Red Army through the Baltic region. 

Riga fell to Soviet forces on 13 October 1944, and remaining German troops, including Latvian units, were besieged in the Courland Pocket. Army Group Courland held out until the surrender on 8 May 1945, with approximately 200,000 troops, including 14,000 Latvians, taken prisoner and deported to Soviet camps. 

Many Latvians fled westwards to Sweden, Germany, and eventually further abroad, with an estimated 150,000 entering exile.

The human and economic toll of the war was severe. Over 200,000 Latvians served in the armies of the occupying forces, with roughly half killed in combat. Latvia’s population fell by around 25% between 1939 and 1945, while many cities, industries, and infrastructures were destroyed. 

Western governments largely refused to recognise Latvia’s incorporation into the Soviet Union, with the exception of Sweden, which returned Latvian personnel to the USSR after the war. The United States maintained diplomatic support for Latvian independence, and the pre-war Latvian embassy continued to operate in Washington, D.C., and London throughout the occupation period.

Second Soviet occupation

The Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944 marked the beginning of a prolonged period of Soviet dominance, which persisted until Latvia regained independence in 1990. This era was characterised by intense political repression, enforced collectivisation, and a systematic effort to integrate Latvia into the Soviet Union’s economic and ideological framework.

Following the German retreat from Latvia in 1944, the Soviet Union swiftly reasserted control over the region. The Red Army’s advance culminated in the encirclement of German forces in the Courland Pocket, where they remained until the end of the war in May 1945. During this period, Latvia suffered significant losses, with an estimated 30% of its population perishing due to military actions, deportations, and other wartime atrocities.

Russification

In the immediate aftermath of re-occupation, the Soviet Union reinstated its administrative structures in Latvia. In February 1946, elections were held for the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, followed by Latvian Supreme Soviet elections in February 1947, and local Soviet elections in January 1948 . This reorganisation facilitated the consolidation of Soviet authority and the implementation of policies aimed at integrating Latvia into the broader Soviet system.

A significant aspect of Soviet policy was the promotion of Russification, which involved the settlement of Russian-speaking populations in Latvia to alter its demographic composition. 

By 1953, approximately half of the members of the Latvian Communist Party were of Latvian descent, with the remainder being Russian or other ethnicities . This influx of Russian settlers was part of a broader strategy to diminish Latvian national identity and strengthen Soviet control.

Collectivisation

The Soviet authorities embarked on an extensive programme of collectivisation, aiming to restructure Latvia’s agrarian economy in line with Soviet models. By the end of 1949, 93% of farms had been collectivised, leading to a significant decline in agricultural productivity. 

Grain production, for instance, plummeted from 1.37 million tons in 1940 to 0.43 million tons in 1956 . This economic downturn was exacerbated by the forced deportation of approximately 43,000 individuals in March 1949, many of whom were rural residents labelled as ‘kulaks’ by the Soviet regime.

Resistance and repression

The imposition of Soviet rule met with significant resistance from segments of the Latvian population. National partisans, known as the Forest Brothers engaged in guerrilla warfare against Soviet forces and collaborators. 

At their peak, these resistance groups numbered between 10,000 and 15,000 fighters. However, following the 1949 deportations and intensified repression, the movement gradually diminished, with the last known partisan surrendering in 1995.

Cultural and educational policies

The Soviet authorities implemented policies aimed at eradicating Latvian cultural identity. The Russian language was promoted as the primary medium of instruction in schools, and Latvian was increasingly marginalised. 

Soviet ideology permeated all aspects of cultural life, with artists and writers compelled to conform to the principles of socialist realism. This cultural suppression was part of a broader effort to assimilate Latvia into the Soviet Union and suppress any expressions of nationalistic sentiment.

Path to independence

The decline of Soviet power in the late 1980s, exemplified by the policies of glasnost and perestroika under Mikhail Gorbachev, provided an opportunity for the Baltic States to assert their independence. 

In 1990, Latvia held elections that resulted in a government committed to restoring the nation’s sovereignty. On August 21, 1991, following a failed coup in Moscow, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR declared the restoration of Latvia’s independence, effectively ending nearly five decades of Soviet occupation.

The period from 1944 to 1990 was a time of profound hardship and transformation for Latvia. The legacy of Soviet rule continues to influence the nation’s political, economic, and cultural landscape. Understanding this history is crucial to comprehending the challenges and resilience that define modern Latvia.

A visit of the Museum of Occupation

The museum focuses on the first decades. There is a lot of information to take in. But as we in the West learned so little about these pages of history, the museum was very insightful for us. 

Baltic States 2025

1. REVIEW | The Loft by Brussels Airlines and Lexus business lounge at Brussels Airport A-Gates.
2. REVIEW | Brussels Airlines Business Class Brussels to Munich.
3. REVIEW | Lufthansa Business Lounge Schengen and Lufthansa Senator Business Lounge Satellite Schengen at Munich Airport Terminal 2.
4. REVIEW | Air Baltic Business Class Munich to Tallinn.
5. REVIEW | Swissotel Tallinn.
6. TALLINN | Lennusadam Seaplane Harbour Estonian Maritime Museum.
7. TALLINN | Estonian History Museum at the Great Guild Hall.
8. TALLINN | LGBT tour at Vabamu Museum of Occupations and Freedom.
9. RAIL BALTICA | Baltic operators launch joint tender for regional trains.
10. ESTONIA | How to spend a day in Tallinn.
11. REVIEW | Pullman Riga Old Town.
12. LATVIA | Riga Castle.
13. LATVIA | Jugendstil in Riga ft Riga Art Nouveau Centre and Janis Rozentāls and Rūdolfs Blaumanis Museum.
14. RIGA | National Library of Latvia and the Latvian Railway History Museum.
15. RIGA | Baltā Kaza – Riga Ghetto – Latvian Academy of Sciences.
16. REVIEW | 3 Pavāru Restorāns / 3 Chefs Restaurant in Riga.